Roadway Human Factors: From Science To Application

Marc Green

Update: 14 Feb 2024. The book is now available as a PDF from Lawyers & Judges Publishing.

The chapter outlines are shown below.

Contents

Chapter 0: Preface
0.0 Second Edition Preface To The Preface
0.1 Introduction
0.2 Point of View
A.What is Science?
B. Types of Science
1. Experimental Research
i. Basic
ii. Applied
iii. Limitations
iv. Precision
2. Statistical Data Mining Research
3. Observational Research
4. Naturalistic Research
5. Survey And Self-report Research
C. The "Null Ritual"
0.3 The Book Contents
A. Structure
B. References And Quotes
C. Stories And Examples
0.4 References
0.5 Endnotes

Chapter 1: Big Vision, Big Human Factors
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Big Vision
A. What Vision Isn\92t
B. What Vision Is
1. Limits on seeing
2. What do we perceive?
3. Na\EFve Realism
1.3 From Sensation To Perception
A. Perception of Space, Size and Motion
B. Inherent Perceptual Organization
C. Learned Perceptual Organization
D. Why is All This Important?
1.4 Big Human Factors
A. From Perception to Action
B. Example: The Underride Collision
1.5 Basic Driver Tasks
A. Detection
B. Prediction
1.6 Conclusion
1.7 References
1.8 Endnotes

Chapter 2: Psychophysics and Operant Learning
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Psychophysical Concepts
A. Classical Psychophysics
1. Sensory thresholds
2. The interpretation of thresholds
B. Signal Detection Theory
1. Sensory factors
2. Nonsensory factors
3. SDT applications
4. Perceiving probabilities and payoffs
2.3 Magnitude Scaling
2.4 Operant Learning and Adaptation
A. Psychology and Inferred Mental States
B. Basic Operant Learning Concepts
1 Strength of reinforcers
2 Types Of reinforcers
3 Schedules of reinforcement
4 Shaping
C. Implicit Learning
2.5 Conclusion
2.6 References
2.7 Endnotes

Chapter 3: Physics, Physiology, Psychology
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Physics
A. Light
1. Quantum and wave theories of light
2. Light measurement, quantities and units
3. Light and vision: Mueller\92s \93law of specific nerve energies\94
B. Optics
1. Reflectance
2. Transmission
3. Refraction
3.3. Physiology
A. Eye Anatomy and Optics
B. Eye Muscles
C. The Retina
1. Rods and cones
2. Visual angles
3. Visual fields
i. Monocular vs. binocular visual fields
ii. Achromatic vs. Chromatic Visual Fields
iii. Visual Field Nonuniformities
D. Adaptation
E. Higher Visual Pathways: Ventral and Dorsal Streams
3.4. Sensation
A. Brightness
1. Brightness and adaptation
2. Brightness and lightness
B. Color
1. Basic color vision
i. Wavelength and color
ii. Classification of lights and colors
iii. Basic color theory
iv. The number of discriminable colors
v. Color categories
vi. Color naming and color memory
vii. Color appearance
2. Color deficiency
i. Anomalous trichromats
ii. Dichromats
iii. Monochromats
iv. Color deficient perception
v. Color deficiency and road mishaps
3. Color vs. brightness contrast
3.5 Conclusion
3.6 References
3.7 Endnotes

Chapter 4: Visibility Analysis: Physical Contrast
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Step 1: Determine Whether a Direct Sightline Existed
4.3 Step 2: Assess the Target and Background Luminance
A. Luminance
1. Direct measurement general methods
2. Measurement scenarios
3. Indirect luminance determination
B. Illuminance
1. Illuminance measurement
2. Illumination from calculation: practical photometry
3. Measuring beam spread
4. Using tables: a car headlamp example
5. Using isocandela diagrams\97a locomotive headlamp example
6. Non-photometric beam spread representations: a railroad crossing signal example
7. Illuminance from tables: an astronomical data example
C. Reflectance
1. Direct measurement
2. Calculation
3. Tables
4. Reflectance enhancers
i. Retroreflective material
ii Fluorescent material
4.4 Step 3: Compute the Physical Contrast of the Target on the Background
A. Direct Looking
B. Viewing Through a Semi-Transparent Surface
C. Glare Effects
1. Discomfort glare
2. Disability glare
3. Glare from headlamps
4. Sun glare
5. Final comments on glare
D. Atmosphere and Weather Effects
1. Atmospheric extinction
2. Fog
3. Rain
4. Snow
4.5 Conclusion
4.6 References
4.7 Endnotes

Chapter 5: Visibility Analysis: Psychology and Contrast Thresholds
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Determining Contrast Threshold
A. Using Data and Models
B. The DETECT Model
C. The Adrian/ RP-8 Model
D. Adrian/RP-8 Model Variables
1. Background/Adaptation Luminance
2. Size
3. Duration
4. Polarity
5. Age
6. Glare
E. Additional Visual Variables
1. Retinal eccentricity
2. Adaptation state
3. Masking and clutter
4. Uneven contrast
5. Monocularity/binocularity
i. Other effects
ii. Monocular drivers
6. Eye disease and optical correction
7. Shape
8. Orientation
9. Motion and flicker
10. Blur
11. Color
12. Arousal level
13. Uncertainty and expectation
5.3 Contrast Threshold Multipliers
A. Detection Level Multipliers
B. Field Factors and Visibility Level Multipliers
1. General visibility levels
2. Pedestrian visibility levels
C. Limitations of Multipliers
5.4 Alternate Metrics for Detection
A. Acuity
1. Types of acuity
2. Optimal acuities
B. Illumination-Based Metrics
1. The twilight envelope
2. Kosmatka (1995)
C. Visual Range and Illumination at the Eye
1. Negative contrast
2. Positive contrast
5.5 Conclusion
5.6 References
5.7 Endnotes

Chapter 6: Cognition, Attention, and Conspicuity
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Overview: Humans as a System
A. Open vs. Closed-Loop Behavior
B. Cognitive Architecture
6.3 Basic Attention
A. William James Explains Attention
B. Laws of Attention
C. Attention and Eye Movements
D. Selection Modes: Space vs. Object Attention
1. Spatial attention
i. 2-D space
ii. 3-D space
iii. Time
2. Object attention
6.4 Source of Control: Passive/Exogenous vs. Active/Endogenous
A. Control and Search
1. Attention conspicuity vs. search conspicuity
2. Serial vs. parallel search
B. Control of Eye Movements
C. Beyond the Endogenous-Exogenous Dichotomy
6.5 Conspicuity
A. Sensory Conspicuity
1. Color
2. Flicker and motion
3. Symmetry, asymmetry, and dynamism
4. Humans
5. Visibility: achromatic contrast, size, & location
6. Depth
7. Salience
B. Cognitive Conspicuity
C. Sensory vs. Cognitive Conspicuity
6.6 Attention & Inattention
A. Expectation
B. Automaticity
C. Tunnel Vision
1. Inexperience
2, Stress, perceptual narrowing, and hypervigilance
3. Mental workload and divided attention
D. Inattentional Blindness
E. Change Blindness
1. Fast changes
2. Slow changes
F. Repetition Blindness
G. Familiarity Blindness
H. Background Factors
1. Masking and clutter
2. Overshadowing
3. Cue generalization
4. Crowding
5. Motion-induced blindness (MIB)
I. Search Factors
1. Satisfaction of search
2. Inhibition of return
3. Visual field asymmetries
4. Switching costs and attentional blink
5. Foreground bias
6. The eccentricity effect
J. Reduced Capacity
1. Low arousal
2. Alcohol
3. Aging
K. Decision Factors
1. Biases
2. Heuristics
3. Satisficing
6.7 Conclusion
6.8 References
6.9 Endnotes

Chapter 7: Space & Ecological Optics
7.1 Introduction
A. Depth: The \93Rogue Dimension\94
B. Indirect Spatial vs. Direct Optical Perception
7.2 Spatial Representation
A. The Physics of Space vs. the Psychology of Space
B. Cognitive Reconstruction of Space
1. Accommodation and vergence (extraretinal cues)
2. Disparity
3. Occlusion (interposition)
4. Aerial (atmospheric) perspective and blur
5. Relative and familiar size
6. Brightness, color, shading, and shadow
7. Motion parallax (relative motion) and accretion/deletion (dynamic occlusion)
8. Height-in-the-visual-field
9. Texture gradient (detail perspective)
10. Linear perspective
C. Summary of Spatial Representation
1. Usefulness of depth cue
2. Depth cues and driving
7.3 Optical Representation
A. Ecological Optics
B. Global Radial Optic Flow
1. The variable and time-to-passage (TTP)
2. Global optic flow rate (GOFR) and egomotion
C. Global Laminar Flow
D. Local Radial Optical Flow and Looming
7.4 Indirect Space v. Direct Optical Perception: Ventral vs. Dorsal?
7.5 Conclusion
7.6 References
7.7 Endnotes

Chapter 8: Collision Analysis I: Longitudinal Collisions
8.1 Introduction
A. Big Collision Analysis
1. Four basic questions
2. What Is A Cause?
B. Classifying Collisions
1. TTC scenarios
2. TTP scenarios
C. Lateral vs. Longitudinal Geometries
D. Beyond Geometry
E. Nomenclature
8.2 Longitudinal Geometry
A. Avoiding Longitudinal Collision With Spatial Information
B. Avoiding Longitudinal Collisions With Optical Information
1. Background
2. Basic calculations
3. Controlling avoidance response with optical variables
C. TTP Geometries
8.3 Looming\97Data and Thresholds
A. Looming Thresholds With Moving Viewers
1. Controlled research thresholds
2. Real-world thresholds
B. Looming Thresholds With Stationary Viewers
C. Research vs. Real-World Thresholds
8.4 Looming\97Example Analysis
8.5 Analysis of the Analysis
A. Parameter Values
1. Braking deceleration: 0.5g
2. Lateral acceleration: 0.4g
3. PRT: 1.5 seconds
4. Looming threshold: .004\960.008 rad/sec
B. Accelerated approach
8.6 Analysis of Task Assumptions
A. Do Drivers Use ?
1. Other optical variables
2. Disparity
3. Spatial information
4. Symbolic information
B. Can Drivers Accurately Judge /TTC?
C. Does TTC determine urgency?
1. Action boundaries
2. Locating the action boundary
3. System tolerance
4. Contingency and error traps
8.7 Why Do Longitudinal Highway Collisions Occur?
8.8 Conclusion
8.9 References
8.10 Endnotes

Chapter 9: Collision Analysis II: Lateral Geometries And Allisions
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The CBDR Rule
A. The CBDR Rule at Right Angles
B. Relative Speed and Bearing Angle
C. The CBDR at Acute and Obtuse angles
D. Application of CBDR to Real Scenarios
E. VBDR Scenarios
1. Acceleration/deceleration
2. Curved trajectory
9.3 Detection
A. Physical Obstruction
1. Internal obstructions
2. External obstructions
B. Human Factors
1. Search and fixation
2. Expectation
C. Putting It All Together: Failure to See Examples
1. Example: Vehicle-vehicle right-angle collision in daylight
2. Example: Vehicle-bicycle right-angle collision in twilight
3. Example: Vehicle-motorcycle sharp angle collision at night
D. Intersections & Traffic Control Devices
1. Intersections and driveways
2. Signals
3. Signs
4. Example: Failure to see traffic control information
9.4 Prediction
A. Constant Bearing Angle
1. Avoiding a collision with a vehicle
2. Causing a collision with a gap
B. Comparing Gap Closure TTI With Egomotion TTI
1. Judging gap closure
2. Judging egomotion
3. Comparing gap closure and egomotion
C. Evaluation
1. Judging right-of-way
2. Judging gaps and lags
9.5 Allisions
A. Run Off The Road (ROR) Crashes
\A0B. The moth effect
1. Literature review
2. Causes
9.6 Conclusion
9.7 References
9.8 Endnotes

Chapter 10: Collision Analysis III: Pedestrians (and Bicycles)
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Factors in Pedestrian Avoidance
A. Perception-Response Time
B. Pedestrian Detection at Night
1. Headlamp lighting
2. Streetlamp lighting
3. Pedestrian contrast
4. Negative vs. positive contrast
5. Polarity and conspicuity
C. Pedestrian Detection Distance at Night
1. Methodological issues
2. Data
3. Other factors: motion and orientation
4. Interpreting the research
5. Determining visibility distance by contrast threshold
6. "He came out of nowhere!"
D. Analysis of a Pedestrian Collision
E. Seeing Pedestrians in Daylight
1. Attention and concurrent task
2. Clutter
3. Crowding
F. Predicting pedestrian Behavior and Yielding
10.3 The Role of Pedestrian Behavior in Collisions
A. Crossing Illegally
B. Darting Into the Roadway and Unpredictability
C. Acting Unpredictably
D. Failing to Search
E. Being Overconfident
F. Making Perceptual Misjudgments
G. Lacking Knowledge
H. Being Distracted
I. Consuming Alcohol and Drugs
J. Walk in the Same Direction as Traffic
K. Choosing to be Invisible
L. Entering the Freeway
10.4 High-Risk Pedestrians
A. Child Pedestrians
B. Elderly Pedestrians
10.5 Conclusion
10.6 References
10.7 Endnotes

Chapter 11: Collision Analysis IV: Perception-Response Time
11.1 Introduction
11.2 The PRT Assignment Problem
11.3 Defining PRT
A. Clock Stopping Events
1. Accelerator release
2. Touching the brake pedal
3. Full pedal depression to brake lock up or maximum braking
4. Pressing The Accelerator
5. Steering input
6. Takeover Time
B. Clock Starting Events
1. First opportunity
2. First perception
11.4 Cookbook PRT Values
A. AASHTO
B. \93Olson\94
1. Drivers were alerted
2. The testing occurred during the day
3. Not all unexpected hazards are equally unexpected
4. The environment was simple
5. The hazard appeared at the point of fixation
6. The visibility conditions were good
7. The hazard was unambiguous
8. The hazard appeared suddenly
9. The drivers were traveling slowly
10. Urgency was low
11. There was no response conflict
12. There was no cognitive load
13. The \93older\94 drivers were not all old
14. Interpreting Olson & Sivak
C. Computer Programs
11.5 PRT and Causation
A. PRT Often Fails to Predict a Collision
B. Variability and Causation
C. Long PRT as a Symptom, Not the Cause, of Avoidance Failure
11.6 Conclusion
11.7 References
11.8 Endnotes

Chapter 12: Safety I: Restraining Pedestrians And Bicyclists
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Safety Psychology
A. Reptiles vs. Mammals
B. Why is safety so hard?
1. Safety as an SDT problem
2. Operant learning, practical drift, and wicked environments
3. Affordances
4. The organizational vs. the individual view of "unsafe" behavior
C. Summary
12.3 Pedestrian And Bicycle Safety
A. Pedestrians
1. Restrain the driver
2. Restrain the pedestrian
3. Other factors
B. Bicyclists
1. Causes of bicycles collision
i The driver's attention is focused on avoiding collisions with other vehicles
ii The bicyclist has low visibility/conspicuity
iii The bicyclist violates driver expectation
2. Restraining the bicyclist
3. Restraining e-bikes riders
C. Bicyclists vs. pedestrians
12.4 Conclusion
12.5 References
12.6 Endnotes

Chapter 13: Safety II: Impaired Drivers
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Aging drivers
A. Experimental Evidence
B. Data Mining Evidence
C. What Is Normal?
13.3 Distracted drivers
A. History Of Distracted Driving
B. Reasons To Believe
C. Reasons to Doubt
D. Why Have Research Studies Been So Wrong?
1. Narrowing data mining research
2. Narrowing experimental research
E. What Distracts Drivers?
13.4 Intoxicated And "High" Drivers
A. Alcohol
B. Marijuana
C. Alcohol Plus Marijuana
13.5 Conclusion
13.6 References
13.7 Endnotes

Appendix A: Recommended Reading
Appendix B: Terms and Concepts in Ecological Optics
Appendix C: Psychophysical Laws
Appendix D: Good Internet Video Demonstrations of Human Factors Principles
Appendix E: Summary of Major Points